Mianfu (Chinese: 冕服; pinyin: miǎnfú; lit. 'coronation costume') is a kind of Chinese clothing in hanfu; it was worn by emperors, kings, and princes, and in some instances by the nobles in historical China from the Shang to the Ming dynasty. The mianfu is the highest level of formal dress worn by Chinese monarchs and the ruling families in special ceremonial events such as coronation, morning audience, ancestral rites, worship, new year's audience and other ceremonial activities. There were various forms of mianfu, and the mianfu also had its own system of attire called the mianfu system which was developed back in the Western Zhou dynasty.[1]: 14 [2] The mianfu was used by every dynasty from Zhou dynasty onward until the collapse of the Ming dynasty. The Twelve Ornaments were used on the traditional imperial robes in China,[3]: 88 including on the mianfu.[4] These Twelve Ornaments were later adopted in clothing of other ethnic groups; for examples, the Khitan and the Jurchen rulers adopted the Twelve ornaments in 946 AD and in 1140 AD respectively.[3]: 88 The Korean kings have also adopted clothing embellished with nine out of the Twelve ornaments since 1065 AD after the Liao emperor had bestowed a nine-symbol robe (Chinese: 九章服; pinyin: jiǔzhāngfú) to the Korean king, King Munjong, in 1043 AD[3]: 88 where it became known as gujangbok (Korean: 구장복; Hanja: 九章服; RR: gujangbok).[5]
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